Travel vaccination requirements

Required immunizations are prescribed by international regulations for entery into certain areas and recommended vaccinations are advisable

VACCINATIONS  OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND ADVICE TO TRAVELERS : 

VACCINATIONS
Vaccination is one of the greatest achievements of public health of the twentieth century and one of the few cost-effective interventions to prevent infectious diseases.

DEFINITIONS. 

• Active immunization: the administration of antigen to induction of immune defenses . 
• Passive immunization: the provision of temporary protection by the  injection of exogenous  immune substances produced.
• Immunizing agents .      

1. vaccine : A  attenuated live or killed preparation of microorganisms or portions of antigenic agents used for induction of immunity and for disease prevention.
2. Toxoid :A bacterial toxin which is modified ,and that has been rendered non toxic  to stimulate the antitoxin formation by retaining the capacity .
3. Immune globulin :Protein fraction which is containing antibody  ,derived from human blood plasma  , used in immunodeficient persons for maintaining defensive immunity for passive immunization when active immunization is impossible.
4. Antitoxin : Derived antibody from the animal serum with specific antigens after stimulation ,it can be used for provision of passive immunity  to the toxin protein to which it is directed.

VACCINE FOR ROUTINE USE 

For the recommended immunization schedule for childhood and adolescence and for adults with certain medical conditions .

ADVICE FOR TRAVELERS 

Travellers should be aware of health risks that may be associated with different locations since. Information about specific risks for the country to be published in CDC Health Information for International Travel.

VACCINATION FOR TRAVEL 

There are three types of immunizations for travel .

• Routine immunizations : It is necessary regardless of travel. Passengers, however, to ensure that their routine immunizations are up to date, because certain diseases (eg, diphtheria, tetanus, polio, measles) are more likely to be acquired outside the United States than ours.
• Required immunizations : are prescribed by international regulations for entry into certain areas.
• Recommended immmunizations : it is advisable, since they protect against disease, including the acquisition of the traveler is at increased risk.

PREVENTION OF MALARIA AND OTHER INSECT-BORNE DISEASES 

Chemoprophylaxis against malaria and other measures can be recommended for travel. In the U.S., it seems that 90% of infections with Plasmodium falciparum among returnees and immigration from Africa and Oceania, the destination will help you determine the particular drug selected (for example. .. on P. falciparum resistant to chloroquine is present) which is preferred by travelers and medical history. In addition, personal protective measures against mosquito bites, especially between ducsk and dawn (e.g .. use insect repellent containing DEET, permethrin-impregnated nets and be projected bedrooms which can prevent malaria and other diseases transmitted by insects (eg dengue) .

PREVENTION OF GASTROINTESTINAL ILLNESS 

Diarrhea is the leading cause of illness in travelers. Has the highest incidence in parts of Africa. Central and South America. And South-East Asia. Travelers should eat only thoroughly cooked food hot, peeled or cooked fruit and liquid vegetablesand bottled or boiled. Although self-limited diarrhea to change travel plans, and only 20% and bring the drug itself bed.Travelers treatment.Mild moderate diarrhea can be treated with loperamide and fluid. Moderate or severe diarrhea should be treated during 3 days or a single dose of fluoroquinolones, high resistance to quinolones in Campylobacter Thailand azithromycin is a better choice for the country. Prophylactic subsaicylate bismuth is 60% effective and a single dose of quinolone and very effective distances of  lasted: However, preventive care is generally not recommended.

OTHER INFECTIONS 

Travelers are at high risk for :

• Sexually transmitted diseases can be  preventable by using condom .
• Schistosomiasis  ,it can be preventable by swimming avoidance or fresh water bathing avoidance in lakes ,rivers in endemic areas .
• And avoidance of bare foot walking outside for the prevention of Hook worm and Strongyloides infectious diseases. 

TRAVEL DURING PREGNANCY 

The safest part of pregnancy where the journey is between 18 and 24 weeks. Contraindications for international travel during pregnancy include a history of miscarriage, premature delivery, incompetent cervix, or toxemia, or other general health problems (eg diabetes). Areas of excessive risk-taking (for example .. if i live virus vaccines are needed for the trip, or multi-drug resistant malaria is endemic) should be avoided during pregnancy.

THE HIV - INFECTED TRAVELERS 

HIV positive individuals with CD4 + T cells that are normal or  > 500 / l microphone does not seem to be at greater risk during the trip. However, people with depression of CD4 + cells should seek advice from a health care traveler before departure, especially when traveling in the developing world. This consultation should include a discussion about the appropriate use of vaccines (for example .. live vaccine against yellow fever is not recommended for people living with HIV), prophylactic medication issues include the systematic denial of entry to persons HIV-positive people in several countries.

PROBLEMS AFTER RETURN FROM TRAVEL  

• Diarrhea: After traveler's :diarrhea, symptoms may persist due to the continued presence of pathogens (eg Giardia lamblia and Cyclospora cayetanensis ..), or more frequently, due to postinfectious as intolerance or irritable bowel syndrome lectose . A trial of metronidazole for giardiasis, a lactose-free diet, or a trial of high doses of lactulose mucilloid hydrophilic (as well as for constipation) can relieve symptoms. 
• Fever, malaria should be considered as the first diagnosis, whether a traveler returning from an endemic area of the mouth. viral hepatitis, typhoid fever, enteric bacteria, arbovirus infections, rickettsial infections, and amebic liver are other possibilities.
• Skin conditions : pyoderma, sunburn, insect bites, skin ulcers and cutaneous larva migrans skin conditions are common in most returning travelers.

 

Chemotherapy protocols

Anti microbial ( antibiotics ) chemotherapy have had a major impact on life threatening infections 

ANTIMICROBIAL CHEMOTHERAPY PROTOCOLS

One of the greatest triumphs of modern medicine has been the introduction of a rational system of antimicrobial chemotherapy to fight against infectious diseases. Since time immemorial, people have used use mussels or mussel extracts to treat infections. In the early days of microbiology, an attempt was made to use extracts of fungal cultures to prevent infections of surgical wounds.

PRINCIPLES OF USE

Antibiotics are among the safest  of medicines, especially for  community infections, and a significant impact on life-threatening infections and reduce morbidity associated with many common infectious disease.This in turn is partly responsible for the overprescribing of these drugs, which led to concern about the increasing resistance to antibiotics.

Most antibiotic prescribing, particularly in the community, is empirical. While in hospital practice, microbiological documentation of the nature of infection and the sensitivity of the pathogen is not usually available for a day or two. the initial choice of treatment depends on clinical diagnosis and in turn a provisional microbiological diagnosis. This treatment "blind therapy targeting the pathogen most likely responsible for a specific syndrome, such as meningitis, urinary tract infection or pneumonia. Initial critically ill patients are often broad to cover the range of possible pathogens, but should be reduced when the microbiological data available.

BACTERICIDAL VERSUS BACTERIOSTATIC

In most infections there is no conclusive evidence that bactericidal drugs (penicillins, cepholosporins, aminoglycosides) are more effective than bacteriostatic drugs, but it is generally considered necessary to resort to the former i treat bacterial endocarditis in patients with mechanisms host defense are involved, particularly those with neutropenia. drug combinations are often necessary for reasons other providin spectrum covers - large. Initially Tuberculosis  is treated with three or four agents to avoid resistance to inhibition emerging.Synergistic is obtained through the use of penicillin and gentamicin in enterococcal endocarditis or gentamicin and ceftazidime in life - threatening Pseudomonas infection.

PHARMACOKINETIC FACTORS

To be successful enough to receive an antibiotic to penetrate the site of infection. Knowledge of standard pharmacokinetic aspects of absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion of drugs have varied. difficult areas are the brain, eye and prostate cancer, but loculated abscesses are inaccssible most authors. Many of mild to moderate infections can be treated is compatible. Parenteral administration is reported seriously ill patients to ensure a rapid blood and tissue concentrations of antibiotics drug.Some only be administered parenterally, such as aminoglycosides and broad-spectrum cephalosporins. parenteral therapy is needed even to those who are unable to swallow or if gastrointestinal absorption is unreliable.

ANTIBIOTIC CHEMOPROPHYLAXIS

These are some indications the use of condoms antibiotics.These understand the conditions where the risk of infection is high (colon surgery), or the consequences of a severe infection (endocarditis, sepsis, post-splenectomy). The selection is determined by representatives of the likely risk of infectious disease and confirmed the efficacy and safety of treatment..... read more

Infectious endocarditis

INFECTIOUS ENDOCARDITIS 

Infective endocarditis is a form of endocarditis caused by infectious agents. Agents are usually bacteria, but other agencies may also be responsible. Heart valves do not receive the blood supply is engaged. Consequently, immune defense mechanisms (such as white blood cells) can not directly reach the valve through the bloodstream. If an organism (like bacteria) binds to a valve surface and forms of vegetation, the host immune response is blunted. The lack of blood supply to the valve also has implications for treatment, because medicines are also difficult to reach the infected valve. Normally, blood flows smoothly through these valves. If damaged - rheumatic fever, for example - the risk of bacterial adhesion is higher.

Infective endocarditis (IE) is an infection of the endocardial surface of the heart. The impact of this infection include severe valvular regurgitation intracardiac, which can lead to intractable congestive heart failure and myocardial abscesses. IE also produces a wide variety of systemic signs and symptoms through several mechanisms, including both sterile and infected emboli and various immunological phenomena.

There are several ways to classify endocarditis. The simplest classification is based on the causes of this disease , whether infected or not the infection, depending on whether the organism causes inflammation. Regardless, the diagnosis of endocarditis on the basis of clinical features, investigations such as cardiac ultrasound, as well as all blood cultures demonstrated the presence of micro-organisms that cause endocarditis.

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY 

Though uncertain, it is believed that the heart valve  of infective endocarditis and other surfaces  of heart when exposed to bacteria or fungi microemboli moves into the bloodstream. Dextran-producing bacteria for example Streptococcus mutans, a virulence factor in promoting compliance with the endovascular surfaces. Coagulase-negative staphylococci to produce biofilm is a prosthetic surface, which also contribute to a commitment. beta-hemolytic streptococci and enteric gram-negative bacteria is recognized factors such as respect, and seems less likely to cause blood poisoning. Endocardial surface is already damaged heart valve disease, endocarditis, surgery, or pacemaker wires create a favorable environment for the formation of thrombi. Over time, microorganisms multiply in whirlwinds, which is a classic vegetation. Micro-organisms to be put into circulation, usually continuously, which often leads to interesting results.

CAUSES 

The infection of the heart valve relatively resist by normal structure. Bacteria and fungi are not easy to attach to the endocardial surface, and constant good blood supply can prevent it from depositing in the structures of the endocardium. Thus, two factors generally required for  infective endocarditis: predisposing alteration of the endocardium and microorganisms in the bloodstream (bacteremia).  In a rare cases , bacteremia or mass of microorganisms specifically virulent cause of endocarditis on normal valves of the heart.

Endocarditis commonly involves the cardiac valves. The main predisposing factors are congenital heart defects, rheumatic valve disease, bicuspid or calcific aortic, mitral valve prolapse and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. artificial valves are at particular risk. Sometimes, the sites of mural thrombus, ventricular septal defects and patent ductus arteriosus will be infected. The actual nidus of infection is usually a sterile fibrin-platelet vegetation ,it can formed when tissue factor release by damaged endothelial cells.

The microorganisms that infect the some layer of heart ( endocardium ) can originate from distant infected sites (example, skin abscesses, inflammation or infection of the gums, urinary tract infection) or visible portals of entry like in a central venous catheter or an injection site . Almost all the foreign material implanted (eg, ventricular peritoneal implants) runs the risk of bacterial colonization, thereby becoming a source of infection and therefore endocarditis.  Infective Endocarditis can also be asymptomatic bacteremia, as  occurs during invasive dental procedures, medical or surgical procedures. Even brushing your teeth, chewing, can cause septicemia (usually due to Streptococcus viridans) in gingivitis patients........ read more

Rheumatic fever symptoms - Leptospirosis -Listeria symptoms

SYSTEMIC / MULTISYSTEM INFECTIONS 

RHEUMATIC FEVER 

Rheumatic fever is an inflammatory disease that can develop after an infection with Streptococcus bacteria (such as strep throat and scarlet fever) and can involve the heart (especially the valves), joints, skin and brain. Rare in developed countries like Great Britain, USA and Australia. Incidence has dropped by 10% of children in 1920 to 0.01% of all children today. This reduction in the incidence reflect advances in infection control and treatment of streptococcal infections to antimicrobials. The disease is still prevalent in developing countries such as the Middle and Far East and Latin America.

Rheumatic fever is preceded by a throat infection with Streptococcus organsisms. After infection with group A streptococcal pharyngeal, usually in childhood (5-15And) is followed by a systemic syndrome I think it is caused by an autoimmune reaction triggered by an infection. Syndrome includes: 1) Arthritis (multiple join pain and swelling) 2), carditis (heart inflammation) 3) The cutaneous manifestations 4) manifestations5 nervous system), fever, joint pain 50% etc.About Patients who develop carditis during the initial phase of the disease will continue to develop long-term heart disease and rheumatic valvular disease.

1) Blood tests: ESF and CRP (non-specific inflammation), leukocytosis2) Studies in X-ray may be a sign of heart infection, pericarditis, pericardial effusion effusion.3) ECG may signs of inflammation of the heart (extended range PR) or, and pericarditis (saddle-shaped ST elevation). Parts of the acute clinical syndrome may recur after the first period. However, projected common disease, skin disease and nerve disease associated with rheumatic fever is excellent with no known long-term consequences. rheumatic heart disease has traditionally been hailed as an important causal factor of cardiac valvular disease and makes the associated morbidity and mortality.

LEPTOSPIROSIS 

Leptospirosis is a rare infection, serious and contagious caused by bacteria of several species of the genus Leptospira, a micro-organism spiral (spirochete). Leptospirosis is often called the swineherd's disease, swamp fever, or mud fever. The organism enters the body when mucous membranes or abraded skin comes into contact with contaminated environmental sources. The infection causes a systemic disease that can often lead to renal and hepatic failure as possible. 

 Leptospirosis is a zoonosis (animal care) infection with a worldwide distribution and incidence. The incidence varies from sporadic in temperate zones endemic in some tropical countries. The disease has a seasonal incidence. Most cases occur during the rainy season in the tropics and in western countries in late summer or early fall, when soil is moist and alkaline. Leptospirosis is usually associated with tropical countries and heavy rains, but most cases occur in temperate climates, probably due to underreporting in some countries.

In general, the prognosis associated with this disease is good, usually with full recovery after infection. more serious systemic infections (Weil's disease), can lead to renal (kidney) or hepatic (liver), myocarditis (heart inflammation), and can be potentially fatal.

Approximately 15-40% of patients are exposed, but do not become ill show serologic (blood or urine or saliva) evidence of a past existing infection. This statistic includes 15% of abattoir workers, home workers, and the incubation period is usually between 7-12 days veterinarians.The, with a range of 2-20 days. About 90% of patients experience a mild form of the disease,
and about 5-10% have the severe form with jaundice, also known as Weil's disease. The natural course of leptospirosis is divided into two very distinct phases, sepsis and immune systems. For a brief period of 1-3 days between the first and second phase, the patient shows some improvement.

LISTERIOSIS 

Listeriosis is an infectious disease caused by foodborne bacteria Listeria monocytogenes. The symptoms are the symptoms of upper respiratory tract and septiceamia. Listeriosis is of particular concern during pregnancy because it can cause miscarriage, stillbirth, premature delivery and sepsis (full body infection) and pneumonia in newborns.

It is an environmental organization that is ubiquitous in soil and rotting matter.It affect both animals and humans, the most common way of infection to humans in contaminated food. The organism can grow at temerature as low as 4 degrees Celsius, and the foods most frequently implicated are soft cheeses, unpasteurized, raw vegetables and the chicken heads. Listeriosis is a rare but serious infection that mostly affects infants, pregnant women, elderly and immunocompromised, L. monocytogenes has also been recently recognized as a cause of self-limiting gastroenteritis, foodborne healthy adults, but the incidence of this phenomenon is unknown....... read more

Lyme disease symptoms

SYSTEMIC / MULTISYSTEM INFECTIONS 

LYME DISEASE

Lyme disease, or other name is Lyme borreliosis, is an emerging clinical infection caused by at  three  type of species of bacteria ,that belong to the genus Borrelia.Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto is the major cause of Lyme disease in the U.S. while Borrelia afzelii andBorrelia garinii cause most of the  European cases. 


The disease name is given after the town of Lyme,Connecticut,  in United States of America , where a large number of cases were found in 1975. According to the  Allen Steere Lyme disease was a tick-borne disease in 1978, the main cause of this disease remained a mysterious until 1981, when B. burgdorferi was identified by another person Willy Burgdorfer.



Lyme disease is caused by a bacterial infection transmitted by ticks and the individual's immune response to infection later. It is characterized by arthritis, neurological and cardiac complications, which is a characteristic rash, which extends from the original tick bite. Lyme disease is caused by spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi, which is sent to Ixodes. Spirochete can be transmitted during the blood meal of an infected tick. Studies have shown that the transfer requires at least 24-48 hours of tick attachment. Ticks carrying the voles, moles, sheep and horses, and wide distribution in the U.S., the UK and Europe. They are particularly numerous in wooded areas along or pasture, ie farmers, loggers and bush walkers usually more at risk. Activities are seasonal and peak in spring, summer and early autumn.

Traditionally, the progression of Lyme disease is divided into three phases, but it is somewhat artificial as the progression from the beginning to a later stage is not inevitable, even in the absence of antibiotic treatment. The first, and in most cases the only clinical characteristic of Lyme disease is a rash of classic erythema migrans - an area of redness migrate outwards from the site of a tick bite might have happened anytime from 20-40 days earlier. The second stage of Lyme disease occurs weeks to months after initial infection and the results spread to more distant locations via the bloodstream and lymphatic system. many organs and tissues are potential targets, especially the skin, nervous system, heart and joints. The clinical signs depend on the system and the severity of injuries. Patients may complain of flu-like symptoms with night sweats and muscle aches.

Lyme disease should always be considered if there is a history of exposure to ticks. A negative history of tick bite does not develop the disease. The study was made to work, travel and leisure exposure and pets. Samples can be performed on blood or cerebrospinal fluid. The organism can be cultured in the laboratory for 3-4 weeks. DNA detection is also possible. The prognosis is generally excellent, and only a few deaths have been reported. Even without treatment, a tendency to recurrent episodes of Lyme arthritis to resolve over time. Children seem to have a better chance of complete recovery than adults.

Skin and soft tissue infection

 

SKIN AND SOFT TISSUE INFECTION .

 

Skin infections are common and can be caused by a wide range of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa, bacteria, mycoplasma and rickettsia. They range from acute to chronic and mild to life threatening. Because the skin has a limited repertoire of responding to insults, clinical manifestations of a skin infection similar to those caused by other substances or mechanisms, for example, allergic reactions such as toxic epidermal necrolysis toxic epidermal , or autoimmune skin diseases such as pemphigus.

 

Skin infections can cause superficial skin structures (for example hair follicles), the external intruder (eg, bites or chips) or hematogenously (foe example , an infection spread by gonococci). Therefore, the approach to identify a specific cause of skin infection mandates attention to detail, and the history, physical examination, laboratory tests and other diagnostic methods. The good news is that you can see signs of infection and also visually assess response to treatment. Thus, if empirical therapy fails, a more powerful diagnostic approach can arise.

Normal skin is heavily colonized by bacterial flora. The most common are the different pathogenic Gram-positive bacteria such as Staphylococcus epidermidis (coagulase negative). Skin infections and soft tissue are usually caused by Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Streptococcus pyogenes. This article discusses the common and some not so common bacterial skin infections, including the impetigo, folliculitis, furncles and jewelry, cellulitis and erysipelas, gangrenous cellulitis, staphylococcal skin syndrome and burned scarlet. Impetigo and ecthyma are bacterial infections of the skin often caused by S. aureus and / or a group of Streptococcus.

 

Mild impetigo topical antibiotics and local, while widespread or severe one and in ecthyma systemic antibiotics like, cloxacillin, erythromycin, cephalexin, or azithromycin should be used. Folliculitis, furunculosis and anthrax infections by S. folliculocentric aureus varies with the depth and extent of ovarian follicles (t) and the surrounding tissue. These conditions can be treated by local or systemic antibiotics like cloxacillin, cephalexin, erythromycin, amoxicillin / clavulanic acid or vancomycin. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome is a toxin mediated exfoliative skin disease caused by S. Phase II aureus group. Intravenous antibiotics such as penicillinase-resistant anti-staphylococcal methicillin, cloxacillin, cephalosporins or erythromycin are necessary.

 

Erysipelas and cellulitis are acute infections of the skin and subcutaneous tissue caused most frequently group beta-hemolytic streptococci (erysipelas) or S. aureus requiring systemic antibiotics like oral or intravenous penicillin, erythromycin, cephalexin, cloxacillin, vacomycin, minocycline, or ciprofloxacin, depending on the severity of the case suspect organism and culture / sensitivity results. Cellulite is characterized by necrosis, gangrene, infection of the skin and underlying subcutaneous tissue due to various pathogens occur in a different position. Ampicillin, gentamicin, and either metronidazole or clindamycin intravenously with standard doses recommended for treatment.

Necrotizing soft tissue infections infection is a rare but very serious bacterial infection that can destroy the muscles, skin and underlying tissues. Necrotizing refers to something that causes tissue death. Many types of bacteria can cause this type of infection. A severe form and often fatal necrotizing infections of soft tissues caused by Streptococcus pyogenes, which is sometimes called "flesh-eating bacteria." Necrotizing soft tissue infections infection develops when bacteria enter the body, usually through small cut or scratch. Bacteria begins to grow and release harmful substances (toxins) which kills bacteria, interfering with blood flow to the tissues, breaking material in tissues, which rapidly spread the bacteria, leading to widespread effects, such as shocks .

 

The first sign of infection may be a small red, painful spot or bump on the skin. This quickly turned into a bronze medal, very painful or purple patch that grows rapidly. The centre may become black and die. The skin can break open and oozing fluid. The wound may quickly grow in less than an hour. Symptoms may include malaise, fever, sweats, chills, nausea, dizziness, profound weakness, and, finally, shock. Without treatment, death comes quickly.

 

 

 

Diseases spread - Diseases control - Prevention of infectious disease

INFECTION ,INFECTIOUS DISEASES SPREAD ,  PREVENTION AND CONTROL 

ROUTES OF TRANSMISSION 


Infectious or contagious diseases are all caused by some infectious agents - such as bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites. Some infectious diseases can be transmitted from  one person to next. Some is transmitted by the bites of insects and animals. Others are acquired from eating contaminated food or water or other environmental exposures.

A contagious  (infectious ) disease can be transmitted from one source. Definition of transmission plays an important role in understanding the biology of an infectious agent, and in the fight against the disease it causes. Transmission can be through several mechanisms. Respiratory diseases and meningitis are often acquired through contact with aerosol droplets spread by sneezing, coughing, talking, kissing or even sing. Gastrointestinal diseases are often acquired through contaminated food and water. Sexually transmitted diseases are acquired through contact with bodily fluids, generally as a result of sexual activity. Some contaminants can be spread through contact with an infected person, inanimate object (known as a vector liabilities) as a coin passed from one person to another, while others penetrate the skin diseases directly. 

Transmission of infectious or contagious   diseases may also include a vector. Vectors may be mechanical or biological. A mechanical vector contains an infectious agent outside the body and sends it passively. There is an example of mechanical vector is a fly that landed on the cow manure, pollution of the annexes for the bacteria in the stool, and then landed in the food before consumption. The pathogen  never enters the body of the flies.

In contrast, biological vectors of pathogens in their body and deliver pathogens actively in new hosts , usually a bite. Biological vectors are often responsible for serious blood diseases such as malaria, viral encephalitis, Chagas disease, Lyme disease and African sleeping sickness. Biological vectors are usually but not exclusively, arthropods such as mosquitoes, ticks, fleas and lice. Vectors are often necessary in the life cycle of a pathogen. A common strategy to fight against the infectious disease vectors is to interrupt the life cycle of a pathogen by killing the vector.

The relationship between virulence and transmission is complex and has important implications for long-term evolution of a pathogen. Since it takes several generations for a microbe and a host of new species co-evolution, an emerging pathogen may hit its first victims particularly difficult. It usually occurs in the first wave of a new disease mortality rates are higher. If a disease is rapidly fatal, the host may die before the microbe can be that way to another host. However, this cost could be overwhelmed by short-term benefit of higher infectiousness if transmission is linked to virulence, as in the case of cholera (the explosive diarrhea helps bacteria to find new hosts) or many infections respiratory (sneezing and coughing for creating infectious aerosols).

PREVENTION AND CONTROL 

Methods of prevention of infection depends on the source and route of transmission. 

• Eradication of reservoir : There is no provision in the tank to an unusual disease to humans are the only natural reservoir of infection, it may be possible to eliminate the disease through intensive screening, treatment and vaccination. What has been done in cases of smallpox there. If an animal or a complete eradication of the reservoir environment is unlikely, but local control methods can reduce the risk of human infection (eg kill rodents to control fever, leptospirosis and other diseases) .
• For arthropode - vector - borne infections :  Destroys the carrier (which can be quite certain cases). Act to avoid biting (eg, insect repellent spray, mosquito nets).
• For food borne infection : Improve food handling and preparation is less contamination during processing, transportation or preparation. naturally present in foods can kill the body preparation and cooking. Improve supervision and regulation of food and better health education for the public need.
• For faeco-oral infections :  Improvement in  water supply  and sanitation. About 30%  ( thirty percent ) of the world's  population  have  no access to adequate safe drinking water ,and over half  have no adequate sanitation.
• For blood borne infections : Prevention of blood transfusion and handling of contaminated medical equipment which is use during transfusion .And routine testing of donated blood for infectious disease or infection even in most developed countries.
• For infections spread by airborne and direct contact:  In some respiratory infections which is caused by some air-borne infectious agents or microorganisms and some infections which is spread by direct contact ,we can control it by isolating the patients. Isolation is so useful but it is impractical in patients .In  severe immunodeficient patients ,it could be useful to protect them from infectious agents which is responsible for infection.